Definitions and Characteristics of the Romantic Age

Definitions of Romanticism

“The addition of strangeness to Beauty.” – Walter Pater

“The Renaissance of wonder.” ¬– Dunton

“Liberalism in Literature.” – Victor Hugo 

“Liberty of imagination.” – Herford 

“The revoking of middle ages……….. a passion flower blooming from the blood of Christ.” – Heine 

“Emotion Against Reason.” – George Sand

“Romanticism is a withdrawal from outer experience to concentrate on inner experience.” – Abercrombie 

“Romanticism is dieses, classicism is health.” – Goethe

Characteristics of the Romantic Age & Romantic Literature

1. Individuality/Democracy/Personal Freedom
2. Spiritual/Supernatural Elements
3. Nature as a Teacher
4. Interest in Past History/Ancient Greek and Roman Elements
5. Celebration of the Simple Life
6. Interest in the Rustic/Pastoral Life
7. Interest in Folk Traditions
8. Use of Common Language
9. Use of Common Subjects
10. One Sided/Opinionated
11. Idealized Women
12. Frequent Use of Personification
13. Examination of the Poet's Inner Feelings

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Shri Aurobindo as a Poet in Indian English Literature

Intoduction

Shri Aurobindo is popularly known as a patriotic, revolutionary, a social thinker, a philosopher and a mystic. He is also an interpreter of truth, a leading intellectual of his time and a great man of letters. Literature, Yoga and Politics were the tree main occupations of his life. Infact literature was his first passion, almost his first love. He wrote voluminously and has left behind him a rich harvest of poems, literary and philosophical essay and poetic dramas. They are an impressive and lasting contribution to world literature. His poetical output includes, ‘Savitri’, ‘Urvasie’, ‘Love and Death’, ‘Baji Prabhu’, ‘Last Poems’, ‘More Poems’, ‘Ilion’ and so on.

His Place in Indian Writing in English

His poetry bears the imprint of master’s hand. His mighty imagination, his command over language, his handling of traditional English metrical form and his mastery to use the rhythm of English poetry make him an outstanding poet. There is in his poetry a strain of philosophical contemplation. It gives it a distinctive place in the whole range of Indo Anglian poetry.

Lyricism in poetry

Shri Aurobindo’s poetic genius finds in its must characteristics expression in his dramatic and narrative poetry, but lyrical gift also is of a higher order. His art mainly acts though melodic and tonic arrangement of the elements of sound and sense. According to Prof. Iyenger “As a lyric poet, Shri Aurobindo’s range is of the widest and covers a period of sixty years…….. There is no question regarding the variety, richness and cumulative impressiveness of the achievement.”  Some of greatest lyrics are “since I have seen your face”, ‘immortal’, ‘Radha’s Appeal’, ‘The Rishi”, ‘Ahana’, ‘Rose of god’ etc.

His Narrative Poetry

Shri Aurobindo’s poetic genius is lyrical but it is primarily dramatic, narrative and epic. His narrative poetry is an important segment of his poetic outputs. He wrote log poems in blank verse, an ideal medium of narrative poetry. ‘Urvasie’, ‘Love and Death’ and ‘Baji Prabhu’, are his three poetical narratives. They show his mastery in handling the long poems. The first two are blank verse romances on the theme of love. The last deals with an inspiring theme. It is a metrical tale of Maratha chivalry and heroism.

Treatment of Love

Like most other Indian poets, love is major theme in Shri Aurobindo’s poetry. Love runs as an important motif in the entire body of his poetry with the remarkable regularity. Bothe his early poetry and his later narratives varies his approach to love from earthy, sensuous, romantic tone to divine vision. In his treatment of the love theme in his earlier poetry. He is romantic idealist live in Sarojini Naidu and Tagore. His later poetry is bold in his visionary and divine concept of love. ‘Savitri’ is narrative of the triumph of love and time, Destiny and Death. Savitri is a symbol of immortal love and its power. She is an embelishment of all love. Love is key motif in ‘Urvasie, ‘Love and Death’, and ‘Chitrangada’. Really his love engages his creative imagination creatively.

His Poetic Style

His variety of poetic style is an interesting aspect of his poetry. He developed different poetic styles. In Words of V K Gokak – “Shri Aurobindo developed many kinds of styles….”  There are his narrative dramatic, romantic, symbolic and modernistic styles on the other hand; the poet was a brilliant and sensitive prosodist. Of all the Indo-Anglian poets, he alone could attain proficiency in the use of blank verse. His use of figurative language in ‘Savitri’ helps him to point out things which are uncommon.

Conclusion

Indeed, Sri Aurobindo’s poetical achievement is of higher order. He made a mighty reputation and still remains unrivalled in his immense poetic outputs and others. His poetry bears the imprint of a master’s hand. He was a great innovator also.

Shri Aurobindo As a Poet

Character Sketch of MR. Hyde in 'DR. Jekyll and Mr. Hide',

          Hyde, as his name indicates, represents the fleshy (sexual) aspect of man which the Victorians felt the need to "hide" — as Utterson once punned on his name: "Well, if he is Mr. Hyde, I will be Mr. Seek."

           Hyde actually comes to represent the embodiment of pure evil merely for the sake of evil. When he is first extracted and in our first encounter with him, he is seen running over a young girl, simply trampling on her. He does not do this out of spite — or intentionally; it is simply an amoral act. He does make reparations. But even in this first encounter, he raises a fear, an antagonism, and a deep loathing in other people. The reaction of others to him is one of horror, partly because while looking at him, others feel a deep desire to strike out at him and kill him. In other words, his mere physical appearance brings out the very worst evil in other people.

        Since Hyde represents the purely evil in man (or in Dr. Jekyll), he is, therefore, symbolically represented as being much smaller than Dr. Jekyll — Jekyll's clothes are far too large for him — and Hyde is also many years younger than Jekyll, symbolically suggesting that the evil side of Jekyll did not develop until years after he was born.

         Hyde also creates terror; the servants are extremely frightened of him. When they think he is around the house, the servants cringe in horror, and some go into hysterics.

         As the novel progresses, Hyde's evil becomes more and more pronounced. He bludgeons Sir Danvers Carew to death for absolutely no reason other than the fact that Sir Danvers appeared to be a good and kindly man — and pure evil detests pure goodness.

        Since Hyde represents the evil or perverse side of Jekyll, and since Jekyll does, vicariously, enjoy the degradations which Hyde commits, Hyde gradually begins to take the ascendancy over the good Dr. Jekyll.

        A conflict between them erupts, as though the older Dr. Jekyll is a father to the errant and prodigal son. He wants to punish this son, but at the same time, he recognizes that Hyde is an intimate part of himself. Ultimately, when Jekyll commits suicide in order to get rid of Hyde (suicide is an evil act in the eyes of the church), this allows Hyde to become the dominant evil figure, and the dying Jekyll becomes Hyde in the final death throes.

Bharata's View on Natya

Origin of Natya:

         Origin of drama is closely connected to Hindu Religious trinity – Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara (Shankar). According to Bharata’s, Brahma was the originator of drama, Maheshwara was the originator of dance. It is also believed that Brahma in originating Natya Veda has borrowed various aspects from different Vedas and their sub ordinary branches (Upanishad). It is said that he had borrowed – 

• Art of effective speech from the Rig-Veda
• Acting from Yajur-veda
• Music from Samveda
• Rasa’s from Atharvaveda

origin of natya

         Thus the treatise on dramatics is called Panchamveda, - a Natyaveda. It is known as the fifth Veda because it is given the same status as that of other four Vedas.

      Some students (the sons of Bharata) asked question to Bharata regarding the art of drama they are:

(1) In to how many part, is this Natyaveda divided?

(2) How many parts of drama are made?

(3) What are the different parts of drama to be presented?

        He discuss his views in ‘Natyashastra’ keep this questions in his mind

Parts of drama:

In Bharata’s view there are four parts dealing with the following topics of drama: 

1. Art of effective speech

2. Art of Acting

3. Art of Music

4. Art of Music

parts of drama

Plot or story of Drama:

         Bharata analysed the story or the plot of drama. According to him there are five elements which are necessary features of good plot. They are-

1. The Germ (bija)

2. The drop (bindu)

3. The episode (anka)

4. The incident (prasanga)

5. The denouement (ant- the end)

feature of good story

Characters of Drama:

      Bharata says that there are three types of character.

1. Uttama (superior)

2. Madhyama (intermediate)

3. Adhama (inferior)

types of character

Aims of Drama:

             Drama aims at presenting Rasa; and three arts are the mean of its effective presentation. It is apprehended directly through eyes and ear. If we look at the traditional account of the origin of the Natyashastra from the modern point of view, we find that it contains relevant answer of some questions to arise in modern mind, as they regarding the questions of aesthetic senses. Bharata declares that they are only two: eyes and ears. He excludes touch, taste and smell, because they are different from person to person.

              The question is ‘what is the aim of dramatic art?’ Bharata replies that the aim of dramatic art is to give instruction not directly, but indirectly, - through the presentation of what is pleasing to eyes and ears. It makes the audience to experience the goodness of virtues and others. It is through the identification of with the focus of dramatic situation. According to Bharata the aspect of sensuous pleasure is must in the experience of the dramatic presentation. Thus he gives the right plays to both: 1. Hedonistic and 2.  Pedagogic. The theories of art in his aesthetics.

          In the opinion Bharata drama is simply a play or plaything. It is meant for diverting the mind from what worries or troubles it. The most essential subjective conditions for the aesthetic experience are that mind of the spectator or pain. He recognizes the importance of woman on the stage for the correct expression of emotion. There are certain feelings which are particular for the fair sex only. So, the accurate and life like presentation of woman is necessary on stage.

         The broad division of subject matter is based Bharata’s view on Rasa and its meant presentation. The later it called Abhinaya (acting). It is divided in to four parts. 

1. Angika – the movement of the parts of the body

2. Vachika – presentation of dialogue; appropriate movement of speech                organs

3. Satvika – the action of mind; it is involved in the various emotion states

4. Aharya – all means of presentation; make up, clothing, atmosphere etc.

TYPES OF ACTING

           The most interesting and original part of Bharata’s Dramatic theory is the concept of Rasa. It is the aim of performance to evoke in the mind of the audience. Rasa is produced from the union of vibhava, anubhava and vyabhichari. According to Bharata, there are nine Rasas which are dominating in the drama. In short Bharata has given the perfect theory of Natya (drama) which serves the purpose of its performance.

Jayant Mahapatra as an Indian Poet in English Literature

Introduction

       Jayant Mahapatra is one of the rising stars on the firmament this spices of Indian Poetry. He has begun late but his work is of such intrinsic worth that he has already come to be regarded as the fourth great poet writing in Indian English today. The poetry of these new poets voices the joy and sorrows of the Indian people. The contemporary Indian reality also universalized and generalized. Like many other Indian poets writing in English Jayant Mahapatra is bilingual. Before taking to writing in English, he had been writing in Oriya, his mother tongue. His Oriya poetry also ranks very high. His poetic collections are: ‘Close To Sky’,  ‘Ten by Ten’, ‘Swayowara and other poems’ and ‘A Rain of Rtes’, his tour de force.

Indianness

        Mahapatra’s sensibility is really Indian. His indianness is seen at its best in his poems about Orissa. There the local and the regional are raised to the level of the universal. ‘Orissa Landscapes’, ‘Evening in Orissa Village’, ‘The Orissa Poems’, ‘Dawn at Puri’, etc are Oriya first, and thus Indian too. In such poems he is an Oriya poet first but he is Indian also because here the local becomes symbolic of India as a whole. In the ‘The Indian way’, the woman is idealized in a typically Indian way. 

Passimistic Themes

        Poverty, hunger and Starvation have been chronic in India. They are the most Significant facet if life of the Indian masses. They also constitute a major theme in Mahapatra’s poetry. The theme is studied from various angles and points of view. ‘Hunger’, ‘The Whore House in Calcutta Street’ and ‘Man of his Night’ is such poems. They are also three different studies of male sexuality and exploitation of women. The poet’s poetry has tragic and pessimistic tone because of woman is the victim of male. Lust and suffering of Indian masses.

Other Themes

        Another major theme of Mahapatra’s poetry is human relationship. His love poetry is praised. The encounter between man and woman is grippingly presented. His treatment of sex and love is quite different from that of Ezekiel, Kamala Das or Shiv Kumar. Love marriage and sex loom large in poetry of Jayant Mahapatra. His interest in politics is revealed by an early poem on Gandhi. Other poets of Indian English poetry have tried to avoid such subjects, but Jayant Mahapatra deals with complete success.

Diction

       His diction is remarkable for his economy and brevity. He uses the fewest possible words to express his meanings. Another important aspect of his diction is his use of imagery. It is startling in his freshness and originality.

Form of His Poetry

Most of his poems have a closed from the structure of the verse is tight. There is a close logical connection between the opening image and the closing one. Such structure is well found in the poem ‘Bazaar, 3 P. M. in Orissa’.

Symbolism

       The poetry of Jayant Mahapatra is also symbolic. The crows in his poetry are the symbol of evil, guilt and destruction. Water symbolizes clarity and wisdom. Rain is symbol of purification. Very often the poet uses an image in the manner of T. S. Eliot and metaphysical.

Conclusion

     Really, Jayant Mahapatra is a poet of promise. He has essentially Indian Sensibility. His mastery of English, his mythopoetic imagination, his economy of phrasing and startling images are all the signs and symbol of a great poet. They are blind to take him to heights not yet attained by any other Indian English Poets. 

Types of Dhavni

        Anandavardhana  in Dhvanyalokam takes up three main types of implicit sense:-

•        Vastu dhvani

•        Alakaara dhvani

•        Rasa dhvani

           In Vastu dhvani some rare fact or idea is implied. In Alankaara dhvani some alankaara or figure of speech is suggested. In Rasa dhvani rasa is evoked. Both Vastu dhvani and Alankaara dhvani can be expressed by direct meaning or vacyaartha, by suggestion or vyangyaartha. But the third variety of implicit sense of rasa dhvani can never be expressed in the direct  meaning of words.

      The Rasa Dhvani, the most important type of Dhvani, consists in suggesting Bhava, the feelings or sentiments. In Rasa Dhvani, emotion is conveyed through Vyanjaka, suggestion. Rasa is the subject of Vyanjaka, as differentiated from Abhidha and Lakshana. . In other words: it is not the direct literal and obvious meaning that is explicit in poetry, but it is the suggested, indirect and emotive meaning that matters. The primary meaning can be understood by all. But the suggested meaning is understood only by those who are gifted with some imagination and a sort of intuition. The mere knowledge of word is not enough to understand and enjoy the poetic import or the essence of the kavya. It needs intuition or Pratibha. 

Types of Dhvani

      Anandavardhana regarded Rasa Dhvani as the principal one.  Abhinavagupta accepted that; and expanded on the concept by adding an explanation to it. He added the Pratiiyamana or implied sense which is two-fold : 

 one is Loukika or the one that we use  in ordinary life;  and 

 the other is Kavya vyapara gocara  or one  which is used only in poetry.

The Loukika Dhvani in poetry is again two-fold:  the one that suggests Vastu or some matter (Vastu Dhvani); and, the other which suggests a figure of speech (Alamkara Dhvani) .

      In Abhinavagupta’s classification, the Vastu Dhavani and Alamkara Dhavani are merely parts of poetry; but, are superior to direct designation. The real essence of poetry is , of course, the Rasa Dhavani.

        Abhinavagupta differed from Anandavardhana over the issues of the emotion of the poet. Anandavardhana viewed the melting of experience in the poet and out flowing of this empathy as inspired poetic form solidified in words. Abhinavagupta, however, explained it as the generalized state of creative medium, where the poet is an impersonal observer expressing human experience in poetry, as an intermediary.

            Ananadavardhana’s  classification is generally accepted and has come to stay. But, what has changed is the types of discussions around it. The later discussions are more pointed and specific.

Theory of Dhvani by Anandvardhana.

anandvardhana

        ‘Dhvyanyaloka’ of Anandvardhana is with Bharata’s ‘Natyashastra’ the most central theory of literature in Indian tradition. Dhvyanyaloka itself is a huge compendium of poetry and poetic style. It refers to numerous views; scholars and poetic texts.  The theory proposed by Anandvardhana is the name of Dhvani, which means the suggestive quality of poetic language. His most important contribution is in the term of turning the focus of critical discussion from the outward linguistic style and poetic embelishment to the more complex issue of linguistic structure in poetry. According to Anandvardhana, it is this structure which is the total effect of the suggestive quality of language. It distinguishes poetry from the ordinary usage of language.

         The Sanskrit Grammarian used this term to refer to the sound. They spoke two kinds of sounds; Prakrit Dhvani and Vaikrit Dhvani. The actual sound of the word spoken belonged to the vaikrit Dhvani. It includes all the articulation depending on the speaker. Prakrita Dhvani refers to the pattern of norms. Later Anandvardhana distinguished between literal meaning and ordinary meaning of the words. Word has a suggestive power which is called Dhvani.

          According to Anandvardhana, Dhvani is a kind of suggestion; an echo one hears in good poetry, meaning is not explicit but hidden. It echoes after a statement has been made. Thus Dhvani is suggested in poetry. The explicit meaning is commonly understood because it is a direct statement, while in Dhvani it is hidden and implicit. It is said that the art lies in concealment. Anandvardhana was an advocate of Rasa but, he concluded that Rasa should be expressed through Dhvani. Thus he considers suggestion, the indirectly evoked meaning as characteristic preparedly of literary disclosure. Such features separate the literary disclosure from rational discourses.

           Dhvani becomes principle that explains – the structure and the function of other major elements of literature. They are Rasa, Alankara, Riti, and Gundosha. In ‘Dhvyanyaloka’, Anandvardhana has presented a structural analysis of indirect literary meaning. He has classified the different kinds of suggestion. He has also defined the function and the nature of suggestion. He used to term Dhvani to designate the universal suggestion. In ‘Dhvyanyaloka’ he says that – “Kavyasy aatma dhavani” (Dhvani is the soul of poetry) Dhvani has two parts Grammar and vyanjana. According to Anandvardhana Dhvani denotes – (1) the sound structure of words (2) the semantic aspect of Shabda (3) Process of Suggestion. Thus Dhvani theory is the theory of meaning and symbolism

           Anandvardhana proposes the three levels of  meaning: (1) Abhidha (2) Laxana and (3) Vyanjana. The tree levels of meaning are very important in poetry, as they can evoke Rasa. There are Sthayibhavas which can be produced in spectator, a single feeling and pleasure one. It is generated by the inferaction of sthayibhavas which are the mental states of human being human. Anandvardhana says that says that Dhvani has the power of affecting sthayibhavas and producing Rasa in heart of readers and spectacles. That is why Dhvani and Rasa are connected closely.

         Anandvardhana was perhaps the greatest of all theories of textual symbolism. Dhvani is the theory of meaning of symbolism. This principle leads to the poetry of suggestion. Anandvardhana proposes the three levels of meaning: (1) Abhidha (2) Laxana and (3) Vyanjana. Besides the literal meaning of the poetry there is another non contextual meaning is dependent on the evoking and context of suggestion (vyanjana) may be communicated through the words, sentences, disclosures, even sounds. The quality of creative writing increases in proportion to the Dhvani involved.

       

We shell conclude with the view of Mammata in ‘Kavyaprakasha’  “The poetry in which the suggested meaning dominates the expressed, is the poetry of the best kind, called Dhvani by the learned.” Thus, the focus on meaning and the types of meaning in poetry must be considered as the major contributing of Anandvardhana in Indian literary theory. Dhvani therefore has both evaluated and strengthened the rasa and poetry.