Bharata's View on Natya

Origin of Natya:

         Origin of drama is closely connected to Hindu Religious trinity – Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara (Shankar). According to Bharata’s, Brahma was the originator of drama, Maheshwara was the originator of dance. It is also believed that Brahma in originating Natya Veda has borrowed various aspects from different Vedas and their sub ordinary branches (Upanishad). It is said that he had borrowed – 

• Art of effective speech from the Rig-Veda
• Acting from Yajur-veda
• Music from Samveda
• Rasa’s from Atharvaveda

origin of natya

         Thus the treatise on dramatics is called Panchamveda, - a Natyaveda. It is known as the fifth Veda because it is given the same status as that of other four Vedas.

      Some students (the sons of Bharata) asked question to Bharata regarding the art of drama they are:

(1) In to how many part, is this Natyaveda divided?

(2) How many parts of drama are made?

(3) What are the different parts of drama to be presented?

        He discuss his views in ‘Natyashastra’ keep this questions in his mind

Parts of drama:

In Bharata’s view there are four parts dealing with the following topics of drama: 

1. Art of effective speech

2. Art of Acting

3. Art of Music

4. Art of Music

parts of drama

Plot or story of Drama:

         Bharata analysed the story or the plot of drama. According to him there are five elements which are necessary features of good plot. They are-

1. The Germ (bija)

2. The drop (bindu)

3. The episode (anka)

4. The incident (prasanga)

5. The denouement (ant- the end)

feature of good story

Characters of Drama:

      Bharata says that there are three types of character.

1. Uttama (superior)

2. Madhyama (intermediate)

3. Adhama (inferior)

types of character

Aims of Drama:

             Drama aims at presenting Rasa; and three arts are the mean of its effective presentation. It is apprehended directly through eyes and ear. If we look at the traditional account of the origin of the Natyashastra from the modern point of view, we find that it contains relevant answer of some questions to arise in modern mind, as they regarding the questions of aesthetic senses. Bharata declares that they are only two: eyes and ears. He excludes touch, taste and smell, because they are different from person to person.

              The question is ‘what is the aim of dramatic art?’ Bharata replies that the aim of dramatic art is to give instruction not directly, but indirectly, - through the presentation of what is pleasing to eyes and ears. It makes the audience to experience the goodness of virtues and others. It is through the identification of with the focus of dramatic situation. According to Bharata the aspect of sensuous pleasure is must in the experience of the dramatic presentation. Thus he gives the right plays to both: 1. Hedonistic and 2.  Pedagogic. The theories of art in his aesthetics.

          In the opinion Bharata drama is simply a play or plaything. It is meant for diverting the mind from what worries or troubles it. The most essential subjective conditions for the aesthetic experience are that mind of the spectator or pain. He recognizes the importance of woman on the stage for the correct expression of emotion. There are certain feelings which are particular for the fair sex only. So, the accurate and life like presentation of woman is necessary on stage.

         The broad division of subject matter is based Bharata’s view on Rasa and its meant presentation. The later it called Abhinaya (acting). It is divided in to four parts. 

1. Angika – the movement of the parts of the body

2. Vachika – presentation of dialogue; appropriate movement of speech                organs

3. Satvika – the action of mind; it is involved in the various emotion states

4. Aharya – all means of presentation; make up, clothing, atmosphere etc.

TYPES OF ACTING

           The most interesting and original part of Bharata’s Dramatic theory is the concept of Rasa. It is the aim of performance to evoke in the mind of the audience. Rasa is produced from the union of vibhava, anubhava and vyabhichari. According to Bharata, there are nine Rasas which are dominating in the drama. In short Bharata has given the perfect theory of Natya (drama) which serves the purpose of its performance.

Jayant Mahapatra as an Indian Poet in English Literature

Introduction

       Jayant Mahapatra is one of the rising stars on the firmament this spices of Indian Poetry. He has begun late but his work is of such intrinsic worth that he has already come to be regarded as the fourth great poet writing in Indian English today. The poetry of these new poets voices the joy and sorrows of the Indian people. The contemporary Indian reality also universalized and generalized. Like many other Indian poets writing in English Jayant Mahapatra is bilingual. Before taking to writing in English, he had been writing in Oriya, his mother tongue. His Oriya poetry also ranks very high. His poetic collections are: ‘Close To Sky’,  ‘Ten by Ten’, ‘Swayowara and other poems’ and ‘A Rain of Rtes’, his tour de force.

Indianness

        Mahapatra’s sensibility is really Indian. His indianness is seen at its best in his poems about Orissa. There the local and the regional are raised to the level of the universal. ‘Orissa Landscapes’, ‘Evening in Orissa Village’, ‘The Orissa Poems’, ‘Dawn at Puri’, etc are Oriya first, and thus Indian too. In such poems he is an Oriya poet first but he is Indian also because here the local becomes symbolic of India as a whole. In the ‘The Indian way’, the woman is idealized in a typically Indian way. 

Passimistic Themes

        Poverty, hunger and Starvation have been chronic in India. They are the most Significant facet if life of the Indian masses. They also constitute a major theme in Mahapatra’s poetry. The theme is studied from various angles and points of view. ‘Hunger’, ‘The Whore House in Calcutta Street’ and ‘Man of his Night’ is such poems. They are also three different studies of male sexuality and exploitation of women. The poet’s poetry has tragic and pessimistic tone because of woman is the victim of male. Lust and suffering of Indian masses.

Other Themes

        Another major theme of Mahapatra’s poetry is human relationship. His love poetry is praised. The encounter between man and woman is grippingly presented. His treatment of sex and love is quite different from that of Ezekiel, Kamala Das or Shiv Kumar. Love marriage and sex loom large in poetry of Jayant Mahapatra. His interest in politics is revealed by an early poem on Gandhi. Other poets of Indian English poetry have tried to avoid such subjects, but Jayant Mahapatra deals with complete success.

Diction

       His diction is remarkable for his economy and brevity. He uses the fewest possible words to express his meanings. Another important aspect of his diction is his use of imagery. It is startling in his freshness and originality.

Form of His Poetry

Most of his poems have a closed from the structure of the verse is tight. There is a close logical connection between the opening image and the closing one. Such structure is well found in the poem ‘Bazaar, 3 P. M. in Orissa’.

Symbolism

       The poetry of Jayant Mahapatra is also symbolic. The crows in his poetry are the symbol of evil, guilt and destruction. Water symbolizes clarity and wisdom. Rain is symbol of purification. Very often the poet uses an image in the manner of T. S. Eliot and metaphysical.

Conclusion

     Really, Jayant Mahapatra is a poet of promise. He has essentially Indian Sensibility. His mastery of English, his mythopoetic imagination, his economy of phrasing and startling images are all the signs and symbol of a great poet. They are blind to take him to heights not yet attained by any other Indian English Poets. 

Types of Dhavni

        Anandavardhana  in Dhvanyalokam takes up three main types of implicit sense:-

•        Vastu dhvani

•        Alakaara dhvani

•        Rasa dhvani

           In Vastu dhvani some rare fact or idea is implied. In Alankaara dhvani some alankaara or figure of speech is suggested. In Rasa dhvani rasa is evoked. Both Vastu dhvani and Alankaara dhvani can be expressed by direct meaning or vacyaartha, by suggestion or vyangyaartha. But the third variety of implicit sense of rasa dhvani can never be expressed in the direct  meaning of words.

      The Rasa Dhvani, the most important type of Dhvani, consists in suggesting Bhava, the feelings or sentiments. In Rasa Dhvani, emotion is conveyed through Vyanjaka, suggestion. Rasa is the subject of Vyanjaka, as differentiated from Abhidha and Lakshana. . In other words: it is not the direct literal and obvious meaning that is explicit in poetry, but it is the suggested, indirect and emotive meaning that matters. The primary meaning can be understood by all. But the suggested meaning is understood only by those who are gifted with some imagination and a sort of intuition. The mere knowledge of word is not enough to understand and enjoy the poetic import or the essence of the kavya. It needs intuition or Pratibha. 

Types of Dhvani

      Anandavardhana regarded Rasa Dhvani as the principal one.  Abhinavagupta accepted that; and expanded on the concept by adding an explanation to it. He added the Pratiiyamana or implied sense which is two-fold : 

 one is Loukika or the one that we use  in ordinary life;  and 

 the other is Kavya vyapara gocara  or one  which is used only in poetry.

The Loukika Dhvani in poetry is again two-fold:  the one that suggests Vastu or some matter (Vastu Dhvani); and, the other which suggests a figure of speech (Alamkara Dhvani) .

      In Abhinavagupta’s classification, the Vastu Dhavani and Alamkara Dhavani are merely parts of poetry; but, are superior to direct designation. The real essence of poetry is , of course, the Rasa Dhavani.

        Abhinavagupta differed from Anandavardhana over the issues of the emotion of the poet. Anandavardhana viewed the melting of experience in the poet and out flowing of this empathy as inspired poetic form solidified in words. Abhinavagupta, however, explained it as the generalized state of creative medium, where the poet is an impersonal observer expressing human experience in poetry, as an intermediary.

            Ananadavardhana’s  classification is generally accepted and has come to stay. But, what has changed is the types of discussions around it. The later discussions are more pointed and specific.

Theory of Dhvani by Anandvardhana.

anandvardhana

        ‘Dhvyanyaloka’ of Anandvardhana is with Bharata’s ‘Natyashastra’ the most central theory of literature in Indian tradition. Dhvyanyaloka itself is a huge compendium of poetry and poetic style. It refers to numerous views; scholars and poetic texts.  The theory proposed by Anandvardhana is the name of Dhvani, which means the suggestive quality of poetic language. His most important contribution is in the term of turning the focus of critical discussion from the outward linguistic style and poetic embelishment to the more complex issue of linguistic structure in poetry. According to Anandvardhana, it is this structure which is the total effect of the suggestive quality of language. It distinguishes poetry from the ordinary usage of language.

         The Sanskrit Grammarian used this term to refer to the sound. They spoke two kinds of sounds; Prakrit Dhvani and Vaikrit Dhvani. The actual sound of the word spoken belonged to the vaikrit Dhvani. It includes all the articulation depending on the speaker. Prakrita Dhvani refers to the pattern of norms. Later Anandvardhana distinguished between literal meaning and ordinary meaning of the words. Word has a suggestive power which is called Dhvani.

          According to Anandvardhana, Dhvani is a kind of suggestion; an echo one hears in good poetry, meaning is not explicit but hidden. It echoes after a statement has been made. Thus Dhvani is suggested in poetry. The explicit meaning is commonly understood because it is a direct statement, while in Dhvani it is hidden and implicit. It is said that the art lies in concealment. Anandvardhana was an advocate of Rasa but, he concluded that Rasa should be expressed through Dhvani. Thus he considers suggestion, the indirectly evoked meaning as characteristic preparedly of literary disclosure. Such features separate the literary disclosure from rational discourses.

           Dhvani becomes principle that explains – the structure and the function of other major elements of literature. They are Rasa, Alankara, Riti, and Gundosha. In ‘Dhvyanyaloka’, Anandvardhana has presented a structural analysis of indirect literary meaning. He has classified the different kinds of suggestion. He has also defined the function and the nature of suggestion. He used to term Dhvani to designate the universal suggestion. In ‘Dhvyanyaloka’ he says that – “Kavyasy aatma dhavani” (Dhvani is the soul of poetry) Dhvani has two parts Grammar and vyanjana. According to Anandvardhana Dhvani denotes – (1) the sound structure of words (2) the semantic aspect of Shabda (3) Process of Suggestion. Thus Dhvani theory is the theory of meaning and symbolism

           Anandvardhana proposes the three levels of  meaning: (1) Abhidha (2) Laxana and (3) Vyanjana. The tree levels of meaning are very important in poetry, as they can evoke Rasa. There are Sthayibhavas which can be produced in spectator, a single feeling and pleasure one. It is generated by the inferaction of sthayibhavas which are the mental states of human being human. Anandvardhana says that says that Dhvani has the power of affecting sthayibhavas and producing Rasa in heart of readers and spectacles. That is why Dhvani and Rasa are connected closely.

         Anandvardhana was perhaps the greatest of all theories of textual symbolism. Dhvani is the theory of meaning of symbolism. This principle leads to the poetry of suggestion. Anandvardhana proposes the three levels of meaning: (1) Abhidha (2) Laxana and (3) Vyanjana. Besides the literal meaning of the poetry there is another non contextual meaning is dependent on the evoking and context of suggestion (vyanjana) may be communicated through the words, sentences, disclosures, even sounds. The quality of creative writing increases in proportion to the Dhvani involved.

       

We shell conclude with the view of Mammata in ‘Kavyaprakasha’  “The poetry in which the suggested meaning dominates the expressed, is the poetry of the best kind, called Dhvani by the learned.” Thus, the focus on meaning and the types of meaning in poetry must be considered as the major contributing of Anandvardhana in Indian literary theory. Dhvani therefore has both evaluated and strengthened the rasa and poetry.

The origin of Natyashastra

                  The Nāṭyaśāstra is the world's oldest treatise on performing arts. It is more than 2,500 years old. This encyclopedic work on art by Bharata muni is divided into 36 chapters and contains more than 6,000 verses. The first chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra gives a semi-historical and mostly fictional account of the creation of the work. This is how Bharata narrates it thus:

                   At the end of the kṛtayuga and at the on-set of the Tretāyuga, people on earth got addicted to base sentiments (ग्राम्य-धर्म) such as excessive desire, greed, jealousy, and anger and found their state of happiness mixed with sorrow. So the devas, with Indra leading them, approached Brahma (the deity of creation) and requested for audio-visual entertainment (क्रीडनीयकमिच्छामो दृश्यं श्रव्यं च यद्भवेत्). They also requested that this be made accessible to all people from all places. This indeed is the need of all people of all times – respite from the world which is filled with conflicting emotions.

The following five verses speak about the creation of Nāṭyaśāstra by Brahma:

धर्म्यमर्थ्यं यशस्यं च सोपदेश्यं ससङ्ग्रहम् ।

भविष्यतश्च लोकस्य सर्वकर्मानुदर्शकम् ॥

"It will contain good counsel for people in their pursuits of dharma, material needs, and fame. It will guide the world in the future too in all their endeavors."

सर्वशास्त्रार्थसंपन्नं सर्वशिल्पप्रवर्तकम् ।

नाट्याख्यं पञ्चमवेदं सेतिहासं करोम्यहम् ॥

"It will contain the essence of all the śāstra-s and will be the foundation for all arts. I shall create Nāṭyaveda, the fifth Veda along with the itihāsas."

एवं सङ्कल्प्य भगवान् सर्ववेदाननुस्मरन् ।

नाट्यवेदं ततश्चक्रे चतुर्वेदाङ्गसम्भवम् ॥

Having taken a decision thus, the deity recalled all the Vedas and created the Nāṭyaveda, which is born out of the four Vedas

जग्राह पाठ्यमृग्वेदात्सामभ्यो गीतमेव च।

यजुर्वेदादभिनयान् रसानाथर्वणादपि ॥

He took the lyrics (पाठ्य) from the Ṛgveda, the music (गीत) from the Sāmaveda, the language of gestures (अभिनय) from the Yajurveda and the aesthetic experience (रस) from Atharvaveda

वेदोपवेदैः सम्बद्धो नाट्यवेदो महात्मना ।

एवं भगवता सृष्टो ब्रह्मणा सर्ववेदिना ॥

Nāṭyaveda, which is closely linked to the Vedas and the Upavedas was thus created by the all-knowing Brahma, the omniscient

          This episode establishes a context for the creation of the Nāṭyaśāstra and shouldn’t be taken literally. However, it shows that the creation of such a great treatise was an outcome of combining different theoretical and artistic mediums. The Nāṭyaśāstra is just a new form given to different disciplines that already existed – old wine in a new bottle. As is the case with most Indian śāstra-s, Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra is a descriptive work on the art forms which existed during his times. The art-forms were neither ‘created’ by Bharata nor does he prescribe a set of rules which need to be followed for all times and places. He even suggests in that the art forms must dynamically adapt to the tastes of people of different places and at different times. This is evident in the several deśi art forms which have evolved with regional variations based on the mārga set by Bharata.

        The structural aspects of form such as lyrics, music and the language of gestures which are required to communicate the content to evoke an aesthetic experience (rasa) are all dealt with in detail in the Nāṭyaśāstra, i.e., it caters to both form and content. Moreover, it guarantees the fulfillment of the four-fold aspects of human-pursuit, i.e., the puruṣārtha–s धर्म, अर्थ, and काम, and also gives us a glimpse of the experience of Bliss (मोक्ष).

          Brahma then asks Indra to instruct the devas to bring the Nāṭyaśāstra into practice. He adds that the Nāṭyaveda must only be passed on to those who are skillful, learned, mature, and willing to work hard. These indeed are the qualities which are to be expected of people who would like to study and practice the Nāṭyaśāstra even to this day. Indra finds the devas incapable of comprehending, assimilating, and practicing the art and feels that the sages who are well-versed in the Vedas are the ones who would be capable to do so. Brahma then instructs Bharata in the Nāṭyaveda and gives the responsibility to him and his hundred sons to propagate and practice the same. Bharata teaches his sons and assigns different roles to them.

         Bharata created the three dramatic styles (वृत्ति) – the verbal (भारती), the subtle (सात्त्वती) and the energetic (आरभटी) and informed Brahma of his work. Brahma then suggested that he pick up the graceful style (कैशिकी-वृत्ति) from the dance of Śiva, which is made up of aṅgahāra-s and filled with bhāva and rasa. As this style could not be effectively practiced by humans alone, Brahma created apsaras, the celestial damsels from his mind, who were skillful in embellishing drama and he told them to assist Bharata. He assigned Svāti and his disciples to play on musical instruments and gandharvas such as Nārada to sing songs. Thus was the art of nātya created out of the existing art forms. The antiquity of the art forms can also be perceived as it is said that major deities such as Shiva and the devas were well-versed in them. The major deities and the Vedas are thought to have existed from times immemorial according to sanātana-dharma.

         Brahma suggested to Bharata that the Indra-dhvajotsava, the festival in the honor of Indra’s killing of demons, would be a suitable occasion to put together a performance employing the principles of the Nāṭyaśāstra. Bharata begins the performance with the नान्दि, an auspicious benediction and devises to portray the popular episode of the samudra-mathana where the daityas (demons) were subdued by the devas (deities). The devas, pleased with the performance give rewards to Bharata. Indra gives him his auspicious banner and Brahma, a kuṭilaka (a curved stick to be used by the vidūṣaka, the clown). Varuṇa, the deity of water and cosmic order gives him a golden pitcher, suitable to drink water with. Sūrya, the sun deity gives him an umbrella, which gives shade from the sun. Vāyu, the deity of wind, gives him a fan. Śiva, as his very name suggests, rewards him with success. Viṣṇu rewards him with a lion-seat. Sarasvatī grants him competence for visual arts.

         The daityas (mainly the vighnas), who were also audience to the staging of the play by Bharata, took it too realistically and forgetting that it is was merely an artistic portrayal of a historic event, they disrupted the play. Angered by this, Indra hurled his flag-staff at the daityas and smashed their assault. Since then, the flag-staff is called the ‘jarjara,’ deriving from the Sanskrit word for ‘smashed’, ‘जर्जरीकृतं.’ The mythical staff is even to this day used in its modified form by actors and is worshiped before a traditional stage-play, with the belief that it wards off evil (vighna).

       Through this episode, Bharata subtly cautions connoisseurs about their responsibility of having a detached attitude while witnessing a play or any work of art in general. Emotional over-involvement and extrapolation of the incidents to everyday life will cause harm to both the art and the connoisseurs. More philosophically, when the bhavas do not get elevated to the level of rasa in a connoisseur’s mind due to his lack of maturity, art cannot be enjoyed.